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There are many ways to motivate employees. We will take a closer look at the possible motivational tools in this article and will discuss the possible outcomes and the effect it might have on the organizational performance.

To motivate someone, one has to find
something in that person that will make that person want to do
whatever the motivator asked for. Subsequently, the word motivation
comes from the Latin word “movere”. The movement of
workers to act in a desired manner has always consumed the thoughts of
managers. This is because an organization
can only be successful if employees are motivated.
Theories of motivation are therefore a good starting point when
attempting to understand the behaviour of employees with the intention
of learning how to stimulate their motivation. The objective of this
essay is to draw some conclusions regarding the practical value of
motivation theories to managers. In order to evaluate the importance
of these theories, it is necessary to examine formal theories such as
physiological theories, cognitive theories and behaviourist/social
theories.

The physiological motivation theories are based on the assumption that
humans have a set of natural needs and that these form the biological
determinants of our behaviour. Physiological theorists such as Maslow,
Hertzberg, McGregor and McClelland suggest that human beings are just
reacting to their natural needs in such a way to satisfy them.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory is probably the most popular
amongst theories of physiological motivation. It suggests that each
human being has a series of innate needs. These are organized in a
series of levels, starting with physiological and safety needs,
followed by social needs. Higher levels needs concern the self (self-
esteem, self- fulfilment or self-actualization) and they can only be
fulfilled once the lower needs are satisfied. According
to Maslow, people are motivated by money, status and power only at
lower and middle levels of the organization. However, Maslow’s theory
is not based on studies of the different values people bring to work,
and there is no evidence that lower needs trigger higher needs or that
any of these needs could ever be satisfied.

F. W. Hertzberg and his colleagues performed a study that found that
the levels of job satisfaction, motivation and productivity of workers
are affected by two sets factors: dissatifiers (hygiene factors) and
motivators. Dissatifiers are aspects of the job that prevent the
employee from being dissatisfied (for example: working conditions,
salary, and supervision). These will not motivate the employee but
remove the obstacles to motivation. Motivators are aspects, such as
achievement or recognition, which result in the worker being satisfied
at work. Because these certain factors are essentially intrinsic, they
are difficult to satisfy.

D. McGregor’s theory of motivation is based on the belief that there
is a direct connection between the way managers treat their workers,
and worker motivation. Managers tend to have two views on employees’
attitudes toward work, theory X and theory Y. Theory X assumes that
the average worker dislike work and must be controlled, as opposed to
theory Y which assumes that employees are interested in their work and
emphasizes delegation and consultation.
Although this is a good basis for providing information to managers on
types of behaviour of their employees, it is common wisdom that people
will be more motivated under a constructive environment rather than in
a penalizing one.

The theory of motivation developed by D.C. McClelland is based on the
assumption that people have three innate needs: the need for
achievement (nAch: competitive success and personal excellence), the
need for affiliation (nAff: need for good relationships with other
individuals), the need for power (nPwr: need for control of others).

The main strength of physiological theories of motivation is that they
identify the innate needs as a basic influence for motivation. It is
clear that all human beings are motivated to satisfy their natural
physiological needs. The main critique of the physiological theories
is that they do not suggest that the individuals can be motivated by
any other factor apart from physiological needs and therefore rely
completely on passive reaction to innate needs.

When examining the motivation of employees, the implication of
physiological theories is important considering the behaviour of
individuals can be influenced many different factors. By finding a
certain management style that can satisfy innate needs of workers, it
is possible to encourage specific forms of behaviour such as
motivation. For example, a new employee who has just come out of
university needs to obtain a lot of support and encouragement in order
to learn quickly and not be de-motivated. Understanding the needs of
employees will trigger understanding of their attitude, which will in
turn allow acknowledgement for ways of motivation.

Cognitive theories of motivation are based on the assumption that
human behaviour is determined by the beliefs, expectations, and
anticipations individuals have concerning the outcome of their
actions. Behaviour is thus is seen as goal-directed and based on
conscious intentions.

E.C. Tolman’s expectancy theory of motivation suggests that
individuals are not driven by deprivation but are guided by important
goals and the expectancy that their behaviour will lead to these
goals. The behaviour of individuals is determined by their
expectations of the consequences of such behaviour. Individuals form a
mental association between behaviour and the outcome of behaviour.
V.H. Vroom supported this theory but
introduced the notions of valence and instrumentality. Valence is
essentially the value of outcomes; outcomes can be desired and thus
valued highly (positively valent), and outcome can be avoided and thus
valued lowly (negatively valent). Behaviour depends on the outcomes
that a person values, and on the expectations that behaving a
particular way will lead to these outcomes. In addition, Vroom
introduced the concept of instrumentality: the behaviour of
individuals is influenced by the extent to which additional goals can
be reached as a result of appropriate behaviour.

The attribution theory of motivation developed by H. Kelly implies
that our behaviour is influenced by a cognitive process which tries to
relate causes to specific behaviour. It is concerned with how
individuals attribute explanations to specific events. Attributions
refer to the causes of the outcomes of previous forms of behaviour,
which influence motivation of future behaviour. Internal attributions
explain actions as the result of intrinsic characteristics such as
personality, intelligence, etc. External attributions explain actions
as the result of extrinsic factors such as weather or society.
Attributions of behaviour also depend on three sources of information:
consensus, consistency and distinctiveness.

Although goal setting is now treated as a process theory of
motivation, Locke argues that it “is more appropriately viewed as a
motivational technique rather than a formal theory”.
His theory suggests that individuals are motivated when they
set specific goals. The important aspects of his theory are setting
difficult goals, participation of workers in goal setting and feedback
on performance with guidance and advice.
“Positive reinforcement is key to maintaining self-esteem and
motivation”. The goal theory of motivation is
similar to the concept of management by objectives where managers can
motivate by setting up specific targets.

The main strength of cognitive theories of motivation is that they
recognize the importance of conscious decision making as a determinant
of behaviour. Their main argument is that before individuals behave in
a certain way, they consciously decide the outcome and the value of
such behaviour. For example, before buying a house, the person will
make choice after thinking about its cost, location and other
alternatives. The cognitive theories suggest that all human behaviour
follows such a rational process. These theories do not take account
for reflexive actions, and therefore do not allow for the presence of
innate needs.

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